Basic Circuit Theory

• Voltage, current, and resistance (Ohm's Law)
• Power and energy calculations
• Series and parallel circuits
• Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL)
• Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL)
• Voltage and current dividers
• Thevenin's and Norton's theorems
• Superposition theorem
• Maximum power transfer theorem

AC Circuit Analysis

• Sinusoidal waveforms and phasors
• RMS, peak, and peak-to-peak values
• Reactance (capacitive and inductive)
• Impedance and admittance
• Power factor and reactive power
• Resonance (series and parallel)
• AC circuit analysis using complex numbers
• Frequency response basics

Circuit Components

• Resistors (types, ratings, color codes)
• Capacitors (types, polarization, applications)
• Inductors and transformers
• Diodes (rectifier, Zener, LED, Schottky)
• Transistors (BJT, FET, MOSFET)
• Integrated circuits overview
• Passive vs active components

Semiconductor Physics

• P-N junction behavior
• Forward and reverse bias
• Breakdown mechanisms
• Temperature effects
• Carrier concentration and mobility

Diode Circuits and Applications

• Half-wave and full-wave rectifiers
• Bridge rectifiers
• Voltage regulation with Zener diodes
• Clipper and clamper circuits
• Voltage multipliers
• Diode switching characteristics
• Signal mixing and detection

Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJT)

• NPN and PNP transistor operation
• Operating regions (cutoff, active, saturation)
• DC biasing techniques (fixed, voltage divider, emitter bias)
• Load line analysis
• Small-signal analysis (hybrid-π model)
• Common-emitter amplifier
• Common-collector (emitter follower)
• Common-base amplifier
• Multi-stage amplifiers
• Darlington pair configuration

Field Effect Transistors (FET)

• JFET characteristics and biasing
• MOSFET (enhancement and depletion mode)
• Small-signal models
• Common-source amplifier
• Common-drain (source follower)
• Common-gate amplifier
• CMOS technology basics
• Power MOSFETs and switching applications

Operational Amplifiers (Op-Amps)

• Ideal vs real op-amp characteristics
• Virtual ground concept
• Inverting amplifier configuration
• Non-inverting amplifier configuration
• Voltage follower (buffer)
• Summing amplifier
• Difference amplifier
• Instrumentation amplifier
• Integrator and differentiator circuits
• Active filters (low-pass, high-pass, band-pass, band-stop)
• Comparators and Schmitt triggers
• Precision rectifiers
• Log and antilog amplifiers
• Op-amp limitations (slew rate, bandwidth, offset)

Power Electronics

• Linear voltage regulators (78xx, 79xx series)
• Switching regulators (buck, boost, buck-boost)
• Low dropout (LDO) regulators
• Power supply design considerations
• Heat dissipation and thermal management
• Switch-mode power supplies (SMPS)
• Power factor correction
• Battery charging circuits

Oscillators and Signal Generators

• RC oscillators (phase-shift, Wien bridge)
• LC oscillators (Hartley, Colpitts, Clapp)
• Crystal oscillators
• Voltage-controlled oscillators (VCO)
• Function generators
• Relaxation oscillators
• Ring oscillators
• Frequency stability and jitter

Analog Filters

• Filter fundamentals (cutoff frequency, roll-off)
• Butterworth filter design
• Chebyshev filter design
• Bessel filter design
• Elliptic filter design
• Active vs passive filters
• State-variable filters
• Switched-capacitor filters
• Filter order selection

Data Conversion Systems

Analog-to-Digital Converters (ADC)

• Flash ADC
• Successive approximation (SAR) ADC
• Sigma-delta ADC
• Pipeline ADC
• Dual-slope ADC

Digital-to-Analog Converters (DAC)

• Binary weighted DAC
• R-2R ladder DAC
• PWM-based DAC

Sampling theory and Nyquist theorem

• Quantization noise and resolution
• Sample-and-hold circuits

Communication Circuits

• Amplitude modulation (AM) and demodulation
• Frequency modulation (FM) and demodulation
• Phase-locked loops (PLL)
• Mixers and frequency converters
• IF amplifiers
• Automatic gain control (AGC)
• RF amplifier design basics

Number Systems and Codes

• Binary, octal, decimal, hexadecimal systems
• Binary arithmetic (addition, subtraction, multiplication, division)
• 1's and 2's complement representation
• Binary coded decimal (BCD)
• Gray code
• ASCII and Unicode
• Error detection codes (parity, checksums)
• Error correction codes (Hamming code)

Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates

• Boolean laws and theorems
• De Morgan's theorems
• Logic gate symbols and truth tables
• Universal gates (NAND, NOR)
• Logic simplification techniques
• Karnaugh maps (K-maps)
• Quine-McCluskey method
• Don't care conditions
• Multi-level logic optimization

Combinational Logic Circuits

• Half adder and full adder
• Ripple carry adder
• Carry look-ahead adder
• Subtractors
• Magnitude comparators
• Multiplexers (MUX)
• Demultiplexers (DEMUX)
• Encoders and priority encoders
• Decoders (7-segment, BCD)
• Code converters
• Parity generators and checkers
• Arithmetic logic units (ALU)

Sequential Logic Circuits

• Latches (SR, D latch)
• Flip-flops (SR, JK, D, T flip-flops)
• Edge-triggered vs level-triggered
• Master-slave flip-flops
• Timing parameters (setup time, hold time, propagation delay)
• Shift registers (SISO, SIPO, PISO, PIPO)
• Universal shift registers
• Counters (asynchronous and synchronous)
• Up/down counters
• Ring counters and Johnson counters
• Modulo-N counters
• State machines and state diagrams

Memory Systems

• Memory hierarchy and organization
• RAM (SRAM, DRAM)
• ROM, PROM, EPROM, EEPROM
• Flash memory technology
• Memory address decoding
• Memory timing diagrams
• Cache memory concepts
• Memory interfacing

Programmable Logic Devices

• Programmable Logic Array (PLA)
• Programmable Array Logic (PAL)
• Complex Programmable Logic Devices (CPLD)
• Field Programmable Gate Arrays (FPGA): Architecture and fabric, Look-up tables (LUTs), Routing resources, Block RAM and DSP blocks
• Hardware Description Languages (HDL): Verilog basics, VHDL basics, RTL design methodology

Digital System Design

• Synchronous vs asynchronous design
• Clock domain crossing
• Metastability and synchronization
• Finite State Machine (FSM) design: Mealy machines, Moore machines
• Pipeline architecture
• Timing analysis and constraints
• Design for testability (DFT)

CMOS Circuit Design

• CMOS inverter design and analysis
• CMOS logic gates (NAND, NOR, complex gates)
• Transmission gates
• Power dissipation (static, dynamic, short-circuit)
• Noise margins
• Fan-out and drive strength
• CMOS layout fundamentals
• Design rules and lambda-based design

VLSI Design Flow

• System specification
• Architectural design
• RTL coding and verification
• Logic synthesis
• Floor planning
• Placement and routing
• Static timing analysis (STA)
• Physical verification (DRC, LVS)
• Parasitic extraction
• Tape-out process

Analog IC Design

• Current mirrors and biasing
• Differential amplifiers
• Operational transconductance amplifiers (OTA)
• Voltage references (bandgap)
• Phase-locked loops (PLL) design
• Charge pump circuits
• Analog layout techniques
• Matching and mismatch considerations

Mixed-Signal Design

• Clock and data recovery (CDR)
• SerDes (Serializer/Deserializer)
• ADC/DAC integration
• Power management ICs
• Isolation and crosstalk prevention
• Signal integrity issues

PCB Design and Manufacturing

• Schematic capture tools
• PCB layout best practices
• Layer stack-up design
• Impedance control
• Signal integrity and EMI/EMC
• Component placement strategies
• Thermal management on PCB
• Design for manufacturing (DFM)
• Design for assembly (DFA)

Testing and Measurement

• Oscilloscope usage and techniques
• Logic analyzer operation
• Spectrum analyzer fundamentals
• Network analyzer basics
• Function generator applications
• Multimeter and specialized meters
• Automated test equipment (ATE)

Standards and Compliance

• IEEE standards
• IPC standards for PCB
• EMC/EMI regulations
• Safety certifications (UL, CE, FCC)
• Environmental standards (RoHS, REACH)